The resurrection of Jesus Christ is central to Christianity and is a belief that all Christians must hold. This section presents a basic apologetic argument showing that the resurrection of Christ is the most plausible explanation for a variety of historical facts. There are many more detailed academic arguments for the Resurrection, but these are typically not necessary outside of scholarly debate. This section therefore largely follows the approach of Gary Habermas and Michael Licona in their book The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus. This approach uses four historical facts plus one additional element that is believed by most scholars. They call this the “4 + 1” approach and write:
“Our objective will be to build a strong yet simple case for Jesus’ resurrection on just a few facts. All four meet our “minimal facts approach” criteria. They are backed by so much evidence that nearly every scholar who studies the subject, even the rather skeptical ones, accepts them. A fifth fact will be added that enjoys acceptance by an impressive majority of scholars, though not by nearly all.”[i]
The four facts almost universally accepted by historians are (1) Jesus died by crucifixion; (2) Jesus’s disciples believed that the resurrected Jesus physically appeared to them; (3) the apostle Paul underwent a profound conversion; and (4) James, the brother of Jesus, changed from a skeptic to a leader in the Christian movement. The fifth element that is held by most but not all historians is that Jesus’s tomb was found empty. Each of these elements is now discussed in detail.
Jesus Died by Crucifixion
It was already discussed above how Jesus’s crucifixion is documented in the first century by both the Jewish historian Flavius and the Roman historian Tacitus. Additional early non-Christian writings that refer to Jesus’s resurrection include the following:
- The Greek satirist Lucian of Samosata does not refer to Jesus by name but refers to the leader of the Christians having been crucified;[ii]
- Mara bar Serapion, a Syriac Stoic philosopher, also does not mention Jesus by name or specifically the crucifixion, but does refers to the murder of the king of the Jews;[iii]
- The Talmud is more specific and writes that on the eve of the Passover feast, Yeshu was hanged. Yeshu is the Hebrew equivalent of Jesus and being hung on a tree was a common way to refer to being crucified.[iv]
Of course, all four Gospels also recount Jesus’s death by crucifixion. From a historical perspective, these four books can be considered independent sources, as they were written before the NT as we know it was compiled. Clearly, there is very strong documentary evidence for the crucifixion of Jesus, which is why it is affirmed by almost all historians. Habermas and Licona summarize this position by quoting John Crosson, a highly skeptical NT scholar who does not even believe that the Jews were involved in the killing of Jesus. “That [Jesus] was crucified is a sure as anything historical can ever be.”[v]
Some skeptics acknowledge that Jesus was hung on a cross, but that He never actually died. This is not a credible position, as the Romans were experts in killing people by crucifixion. When the Roman soldiers discovered that Jesus was dead, they broke the legs of the two thieves to hasten their death (Jn 19:32). Furthermore, the soldiers pierced Jesus with a spear to make sure that He was dead. William Edwards explains:
“Clearly, the weight of historical and medical evidence indicates that Jesus was dead before the wound to his side was inflicted and supports the traditional view that the spear, thrust between his right ribs, probably perforated not only the right lung but also the pericardium and heart and thereby ensured his death. Accordingly, interpretations based on the assumption that Jesus did not die on the cross appear to be at odds with modern medical knowledge.”[vi]
The same article explains that death by crucifixion typically ranged from three hours to four days depending upon the severity of the scourging that occurred prior to being nailed to the cross. As Jesus was heavily scourged, it is not unusual that He died quickly. When Joseph of Arimathea came to ask Pilot for the dead body of Jesus for burial, Pilot conferred with guard to ensure that Jesus was, in fact, dead (Mt 15:42-45).
Jesus’s Disciples Believed that the Resurrected Jesus Appeared to Them
There are two steps of argumentation to show that Jesus’s disciples believed that that the resurrected Jesus appeared to them. First, that they claimed that this happened. And second, that they actually believed that this happened. This section will begin with the issue of claims.
There are many post-resurrection appearances of Jesus in the Gospels and in Acts. He appears to Mary Magdalene (Jn 20:10-18), Mary and other women (Mt 2:1-10); Peter (Lk 24:34); two disciples on the road to Emmaus (Lk 24:13-35); seven of the apostles (Jn 21:1-23); ten of the apostles (Lk 24:36-49); eleven of the apostles (Jn 20:24-31); all of the apostles (Mt 28:16-20); and again to all of the apostles (Acts 1:4-8). Clearly, the post-resurrection appearances of Jesus are an important part of the Gospels, but many skeptics discount the historical content of the Gospels outright. Therefore, the demonstration that Jesus’s disciples claimed that the resurrected Jesus appeared to them typically begins with the following passage from Paul:
“[Christ] was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures, and that He appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. After that He appeared to more than five hundred brothers and sisters at one time, most of whom remain until now, but some have fallen asleep; then He appeared to James, then to all the apostles; and last of all, as to one untimely born, He appeared to me also.” (1 Cor 15:4-8)
When Paul wrote this, he personally knew many of Jesus’s original apostles. This is particularly true of Peter (also known as Cephas), James, and John. Paul would have therefore had first-hand knowledge of the claims about Peter’s encounter with the risen Christ, James’s encounter with the risen Christ, and the occasions when the risen Christ appeared to multiple apostles at once. At a minimum, this demonstrates that the apostles, including Paul, claimed that they encountered the risen Christ.
But we don’t just have to take Paul’s word for it. Clement of Rome wrote a letter in 95 that speaks of the apostles’ certainty as to the resurrection of Jesus, presupposing a claim. This account has strong weight since it is known from the writings of Irenaeus and Tertullian that Clement had personal relationships with many of Jesus’s original apostles and a particularly close relationship with Peter. In addition, Polycarp (who was also identified by Irenaeus and Tertullian to have been associated with the original disciples) wrote a letter that describes Paul and the other apostles loving Jesus who was raised from the dead by God.[vii] There are therefore extensive independent sources attesting to the claims of Jesus’s disciples that that the Resurrected Jesus appeared to them.
Did the disciples believe their claims or were these false claims? There is strong evidence in favor of the former. This is based on the psychological transformation of the apostles from defeated to the extent of denying their relationship with Jesus to faith so strong as to be willing to suffer and die for it. For example, Peter after Jesus’s arrest denied even knowing Jesus (Mt 26:69-75; Mk 14:66-72; Lk 22:54-62; Jn 18:25-27). He later became the leader of the early Christian church, refused to stop preaching the gospel even after being arrested and threatened by the Jewish council (Acts 4:13-22), and was eventually put to death by Emperor Nero for being Christian.[viii] It is believed that of all of the apostles, only John did not die a martyr’s death. Examples of early disciples that were martyred include:
- Stephen. After preaching the Gospel to the Jewish high priests, Stephen was driven out of the city and stoned to death (Acts 7:1-60). Although not an apostle, the stoning of Stephen made the risks of preaching the Gospel crystal clear.
- James, the Brother of John. The apostle James was the second known Christian to be martyred (after Stephen). This occurred when King Herod arrested some Christians and had James executed with a sword (Acts 12:2).
- Andrew. After preaching Christ’s resurrection to the Scythians and Thracians in Greece and Turkey, the apostle Andrew (and brother of Peter) was crucified for his faith. Tradition has it that Andrew was crucified on an X-shaped cross with his feet and hands bound rather than nailed. But the writings of Hippolytus state that Andrew was hung on an olive tree at the city of Patras in Achaea, in the year 60.
- Thomas. Thomas, the “doubting Thomas” apostle, was martyred with a spear in the city of Chennai (formerly called Madras) after preaching extensively throughout India. This occurred in the year 72.
- Matthias. Matthias replaced Judas Iscariot as the twelfth Apostle (Acts 1:26). After preaching the Gospel throughout Asia Minor, Matthias was martyred around the year 64 in Colchis, a city in the Caucasus Mountains north of Cappadocia.
A host of historical sources attest to the willingness of Christian disciples to suffer and die for their faith. Some of the more important include the writings of Clement of Rome (died c.100), Ignatius of Antioch (died c.108), Polycarp (d.155), Dionysius of Corinth (d.171), Tertullian (died c.220), and Origen (died c.253). The willingness of Christians to suffer and die does not prove that the risen Jesus actually appeared to them but does provide strong evidence that this was believed to be true. Habermas and Licona write (emphasis in the original):
“All of these sources, biblical and non-biblical alike, affirm the disciples’ willingness to suffer and die for their faith … The disciples’ willingness to suffer and die for their beliefs indicates that they certainly regarded those beliefs as true. The case is strong that they did not willfully lie about the appearances of the risen Jesus. Liars make poor martyrs.”[ix]
The belief of the disciples that they had truly seen the risen Jesus is strong evidence of the Resurrection. Other explanations are highly improbable and are only seriously entertained by those who do not believe that the Resurrection is a real possibility and therefore any other explanation is more probable.
Paul was Converted
Perhaps even stronger evidence than the original apostles is the conversion of Paul (also known as Saul). This is because the original apostles were followers of Jesus during his earthly ministry whereas Paul was an aggressive enemy of the early Christian church. Paul speaks of his persecution of Christians in his letter to the Galatians, in his letter to the Philippians, and in his letter to the Corinthians. The book of Acts also separately testifies to Paul’s anti-Christian activities:
“Now Saul approved of putting Stephen to death. And on that day a great persecution began against the church in Jerusalem, and they were all scattered throughout the regions of Judea and Samaria, except for the apostles. Some devout men buried Stephen, and mourned loudly for him. But Saul began ravaging the church, entering house after house; and he would drag away men and women and put them in prison.” (Acts 89:1-3)
Later in Acts, Paul recounts his strong opposition to Christians, explaining how he locked up many in prison, cast votes against them when they were being put to death, punished them in synagogues, and even pursued them to foreign cities (Acts 26:9-11). Paul explains that his conversion was not based on a reconsideration of Christian teachings, but due to a direct encounter with the risen Christ. Paul writes about seeing Jesus (1 Cor 9:1; 1 Cor 15:8) and about God revealing His Son to him (Gal 1:13-17). Paul’s strong belief that he had encountered the risen Jesus is also documented by Clement of Rome (died c.100), Polycarp (d.155), Dionysius of Corinth (d.171), Tertullian (died c.220), and Origen (died c.253).
As with the early followers of Jesus, Paul’s belief that he had truly seen the risen Jesus is strong evidence of the Resurrection. Unlike the early followers, it is easier to argue that Paul’s experience was a hallucination or a delusion since it is not clear whether other people experienced the risen Christ along with Paul. But Paul’s conversion from one of Christianity’s chief persecutors to one of its chief proponents is best explained by Paul actually experiencing the true risen Christ.
James, the Skeptical Brother of Jesus, is Converted
James was a brother of Jesus and a non-believer of the Gospel message during Jesus’s earthly ministry. “For not even His brothers believed in Him” (Jn 7:5). The risen Jesus is then recounted by Paul to have appeared to James. “[Then Jesus] appeared to James” (1 Cor 15:7). It seems that Paul heard this directly from James, as Paul met with James on his first visit to Jerusalem. “Then three years [after my conversion] I went up to Jerusalem to become acquainted with Cephas, and stayed with him for fifteen days. But I did not see another one of the apostles except James, the Lord’s brother” (Gal 1:18-19).
After seeing his risen brother, James was converted from being a skeptic to leading (along with Peter) the early Church in Jerusalem. According to the historian Hegesippus (d.180), the Pharisees commanded James to climb to the top of the Temple and tell the crowds that Jesus was not the Christ. When James boldly proclaimed that Jesus is the Christ and is at the right hand of God in Heaven, the Pharisees had James pushed from the top of the temple. Hegesippus writes that James survived the fall, but was then stoned to death.[x]
Similar to Paul, James’s conversion from one of Christianity’s skeptics to one of its chief proponents is best explained by James actually experiencing the true risen Christ. This explanation is made even stronger due to James growing up with Jesus as his brother.[xi]
The Tomb was Found Empty
The empty tomb of Jesus does not have as strong of historical evidence as the first four facts pointing to Jesus’s resurrection, but Gary Habaneras still estimates that about 75 percent of scholars on the subject accept the empty tomb as a historical fact. This is based primarily on the historical situation around Jerusalem, enemy attestation, and the testimony of women.
Jesus was crucified in Jerusalem and was buried in a tomb nearby. His claimed post-resurrection appearances were also in Jerusalem. As such, it would have been impossible for the early Christian movement to maintain the claim of Jesus being risen from the dead if the body of Jesus could simply be produced by the Jewish or Roman leadership if the tomb was not empty. There is also no mention by early critics of Christianity that the tomb was occupied. For example, Celsus, a second century Greek philosopher, makes no mention of an occupied tomb when arguing against Jesus’s resurrection, even though this would strongly support his position.
Early critics of Christianity claimed that the body of Jesus was stolen. For example the gospel of Matthew reads:
“Now while they were on their way, some of the men from the guard came into the city and reported to the chief priests all that had happened. And when they had assembled with the elders and consulted together, they gave a large sum of money to the soldiers, and said, “You are to say, ‘His disciples came at night and stole Him while we were asleep.’ And if this comes to the governor’s ears, we will appease him and keep you out of trouble.” And they took the money and did as they had been instructed; and this story was widely spread among the Jews and is to this day.” (Mt 28:11-15)
The “stolen body theory” also appears in several non-biblical sources. It is written about by Justin Martyr in his Trypho and by Tertullian in his De Spectaculis. In criticizing non-believers, Justin Martyr writes, “Yet not only did you not repent, when you learned that He had risen from the dead, but [claim that] His disciples stole Him by night from the tomb.”[xii] Tertullian writes, “[N]othing was found in the tomb … None the less, the chief men of the Jews … spread the story about that the disciples had stolen him.”[xiii]
There are no known alternate theories to explain the empty tomb. Either the tomb was not really empty (highly unlikely because the body would have been produced), the body of Jesus was stolen (which results in an empty tomb), or Jesus experienced bodily resurrection (which results in an empty tomb).
The Resurrection Best Explains the Historical Facts
Habermas and Licona conclude their argument for the resurrection of Jesus by enumerating the options from which to consider. They list five plausible explanations that account for the claims by the disciples that they sincerely believed that Jesus rose from the dead and appeared to them. These explanations are:[xiv]
- Jesus actually rose from the dead;
- The disciples committed fraud;
- The appearance of Jesus to the disciples was due to hallucination or delusion;
- Jesus never really died and his appearances were after recovering from a coma; and
- The entire story is a legend that developed over time.
Option 2 does not sufficiently account for the disciples’ transformed lives, or the transformation of both Paul and James and Christ’s appearance to both of them. Option 3 does not account for the risen Christ appearing to multiple people at the same time on multiple occasions. Option 4 is extremely unlikely due to the determination of the guards that Jesus was dead and their additional stabbing of Jesus with a spear which likely punctured both the lungs and the heart. Option 5 is untenable since there are multiple early attestations of the disciples claiming that they saw the risen Christ from both Christian and non-Christian sources. This leaves Option 1 as the most plausible explanation of the facts; Jesus did indeed die on the cross, was buried in a tomb, rose from the dead on the third day, and actually appeared to His disciples after His resurrection.
Even scholars who think that the resurrection of a dead person is impossible recognize the strong case for Jesus’s resurrection. Douglas Groothuis cites the following quote from Antony Flew, who does not believe in the resurrection, “The evidence for the resurrection is better than for claimed miracles in any other religion. It is outstandingly different in quality and quantity, I think, from the evidence offered for the occurrence of most other supposedly miraculous events.”[xv]
[i] Gary Habermas and Michael Licona, The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus, Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications: 48. Habermas is the chair of the department of philosophy and theology at Liberty University and Licona is an associate professor of theology at Houston Baptist Seminary.
[ii] Lucian of Samosata, The Death of Peregrine, c.150: ¶11-13.
[iii] Arthur Cleveland, et. al., ed., The Anti-Nicene Fathers: Translations of the Writings of the Fathers Down to A.D. 325, Oak Harbor, OR: Logos Research Systems, 1997.
[iv] The Talmud, Sanhedren 43a.
[v] Gary Habermas and Michael Licona, The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus, Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications: 49.
[vi] William Edwards, Wesley Gabel, and Floyd Hosmer, “On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ,” Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 255, no. 11, 1986: 1460.
[vii] The original letter of Polycarp (which was written to the Philippian church) is lost, but much of its content is known since it is quoted extensively in the writings of Eusebius of Caesarea (c.263–c.339).
[viii] Although Peter’s death as a martyr does not appear in Acts, it is attested to by Pope Clement I (d.99), in his “Letter to the Corinthians,” by Tertullian (c.155–c.240) his Prescription Against Heretics, by Origen (184–253) in his Commentary on the Book of Genesis III, and many other later writers.
[ix] Gary Habermas and Michael Licona, The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus, Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications: 59.
[x] The writings of Hegesippus are lost, but these parts of his writings are quoted by Eusebius of Caesarea (c.263–c.339).
[xi] Celsus argues against Christianity, including the Resurrection, in his work The True Word. This work is lost, but fragments are quoted in Contra Celsum by Origen of Alexandria.
[xii] Justin Martyr, The Dialogue with Trypho, Lukan Williams, tr., London: The MacMillan Company, 1930: 224.
[xiii] Tertullian, De Spectaculis, T.R. Glover, tr., Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1931: 113.
[xiv] Gary Habermas and Michael Licona, The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus, Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications: 208.
[xv] Douglas Groothuis, Christian Apologetics: A Comprehensive Case for Biblical Faith, 2nd ed., Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2022: 583.
Leave a Reply