This post examines how Christian theology answers philosophical questions about ethics. It first discusses the Christian perspective of free will and moral accountability. It then addresses moral standards, the law of human nature, and the Christian understanding of moral failures.
Free Will
Most Christians (like most people) believe in free will. Free will is fundamental to any religion interested in morality since the inability to freely make moral choices renders moral choices irrelevant. Many stories in the Bible are about moral choices. This starts with the story of Adam and Eve and their choice to eat the forbidden fruit. It continues with Moses and his choice to lead the Israelites out of Egypt. Much of the rest of the OT is about the Israelites choosing whether to obey or disobey God’s commandments. In the Gospels, John the Baptist asks people to repent their sins. Jesus asks people to love God and to love one another. Paul’s letters ask people to reject false teachings. Some quotes from the Bible that specifically call for people to choose include (emphasis added):
- I call heaven and earth to witness against you today, that I have placed before you life and death, the blessing and the curse. So choose life in order that you may live, you and your descendants, by loving the Lord your God, by obeying His voice, and by holding close to Him (Dt 30:19);
- But if it is disagreeable in your sight to serve the Lord, choose for yourselves today whom you will serve (Jo 24:15);
- Who is the person who fears the Lord? He will instruct him in the way he should choose (Ps 25:12); and
- Do not envy a violent person, and do not choose any of his ways (Prv 3:31).
The Bible (like most major religions) clearly teaches that people can make true moral choices. There are other theological implications related to free will such as its compatibility with the absolute sovereignty and omniscience of God, but these are outside of the topic of ethics. For these issues, the reader is referred to Section 6.6 on p. 99.
Moral Standards
A universal moral standard can only exist if some moral choices are better than others as determined by an extramundane standard. Christians, of course, believe that the extramundane standard of universal morality is determined by God. In the OT, God communicates His moral standard to prophets, who then communicate them to the rest of the Israelites.[i] The book of Exodus describes one of God’s instructions to Moses as follows:
And Moses went up to God, and the Lord called to him from the mountain, saying, “This is what you shall say to the house of Jacob and tell the sons of Israel: ‘You yourselves have seen what I did to the Egyptians, and how I carried you on eagles’ wings, and brought you to Myself. Now then, if you will indeed obey My voice and keep My covenant, then you shall be My own possession among all the peoples, for all the earth is Mine; and you shall be to Me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.’ These are the words that you shall speak to the sons of Israel.” (Ex 19:3-6)
With regards to moral standards, it is not important to believe that this event occurred exactly like it is written. The point is that, according to the OT, the ancient Hebrews received their moral standards from prophets who received them from God. All of the OT books of the major prophets have similar stories.
- Then I heard the voice of the Lord, saying, “Whom shall I send, and who will go for Us?” Then I said, “Here am I. Send me!” And He said, “Go, and tell this people” (Is 6:8-9);
- Then the Lord stretched out His hand and touched my mouth, and the Lord said to me, “Behold, I have put My words in your mouth” (Jer 1:9); and
- Then [God] said to me, “Son of man, stand on your feet, and I will speak with you.” And as He spoke to me the Spirit entered me and set me on my feet; and I heard Him speaking to me. Then He said to me, “Son of man, I am sending you to the sons of Israel, to a rebellious people who have rebelled against Me; they and their fathers have revolted against Me to this very day. So I am sending you to those who are impudent and obstinate children, and you shall say to them, ‘This is what the Lord God says’” (Ez 2:1-4).
The NT is a bit different since moral standards are based directly on the words of Jesus. In many places, Jesus instructs people to follow very strict moral rules such as going beyond what the Ten Commandments (Decalogue) require. “You have heard that it was said, ‘You shall not commit adultery’; but I say to you that everyone who looks at a woman with lust for her has already committed adultery with her in his heart” (Mt 5:27-28). Jesus sometimes also negates OT instructions to make moral points, such as when he says, “You have heard that it was said, ‘Eye for eye, and tooth for tooth.’ But I say to you, do not show opposition against an evil person; but whoever slaps you on your right cheek, turn the other toward him also” (Mt 5:38-39).[ii]
A good summary of how moral standards are communicated in the OT versus the NT is in the beginning of Hebrews, “In the past God spoke to our ancestors through the prophets at many times and in various ways, but in these last days he has spoken to us by his Son” (Heb 1:1 NIV). In both the OT and in the NT, the source of Christian moral standards is God: God the Father through the prophets in the OT and God the Son directly to the people in the NT.
The Law of Human Nature
Christians believe that normal people are aware of the Law of Human Nature without it having to be learned. In the OT, standards of moral conduct were revealed to prophets and then organized into the Law. This began with God giving the Decalogue to Moses on Mount Sinai. In Jesus’s time, pious Jews learned the Law and observed it in obedience to God. Paul, a learned Jewish man himself, spent most of his ministry preaching to Gentiles (i.e., non-Jews). Many Jews at the time wondered how Gentiles could be obedient to God without having to learn and practice the Law. Paul addresses this issue in his Letter to the Romans:
“[F]or it is not the hearers of the Law who are righteous before God, but the doers of the Law who will be justified. For when Gentiles who do not have the Law instinctively perform the requirements of the Law, these, though not having the Law, are a law to themselves, in that they show the work of the Law written in their hearts.” (Rom 2:13-15)
In Paul’s words, moral standards of conduct are “written” on people’s hearts. They do not need to learn a detailed legalistic moral code because they “instinctively perform the requirements.” Paul addresses this issue again when discussing ungodliness and unrighteousness, “For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of people who suppress the truth in unrighteousness, because that which is known about God is evident within them; for God made it evident to them” (Rom 1:18-19). According to Paul, the Law of Human nature is not only evident within people, but this knowledge was put there by God.
Christians believe that everyone has an innate sense of right and wrong, and that the basic principles of right and wrong are the same for everyone. People can mature in their understanding and application of these basic principles, but people know when they make poor moral choices, and it is fair to hold them accountable for these poor moral choices.
Does Moral Behavior Matter?
Christians believe that moral behavior matters. Why moral behavior matters to Christians is somewhat complicated. The understanding of the ancient Hebrews as to why moral behavior matters is described in the OT. This understanding becomes somewhat distorted, which Jesus points out and corrects in the NT.
In the OT, good moral choices are often rewarded by God and poor moral choices are often punished by God. In fact, the majority of the OT is about the Israelites (as a whole) being punished and rewarded by God in the following general sequence of event:
- The Israelites begin to disobey God’s commandments, often by worshiping pagan gods and idols.
- God punishes the Israelites by allowing them to be conquered by foreign invaders.
- In their captivity, the Israelites regain their obedience to God.
- God rewards the Israelites by allowing them to defeat the foreign invaders.
- The cycle repeats many times.
In the OT, God emphatically does not like it when the Israelites worship pagan gods and idols. The prophet Ezekiel tells the Israelites his message from God, “I will also lay the dead bodies of the sons of Israel in front of their idols; and I will scatter your bones around your altars. Everywhere you live, cities will be in ruins and the high places will be deserted, so that your altars will be in ruins and deserted, your idols will be broken and brought to an end, your incense altars will be cut down, and your works wiped out. The slain will fall among you, and you will know that I am the Lord” (Ez 6:5-7).
The books of 1 Kings and 2 Kings tell the story of about 500 years of various kings ruling over Judah (the Southern Israelite Nation) and Israel (the Northern Israelite Nation). Most of these kings did not follow God’s commandments and many were punished for it. Interestingly, some were spared punishment but were told that their descendants would be punished instead. An example is King Ahab, a very bad king. God instructs the prophet Elijah to confront Ahab:
“[B]ecause you have given yourself over to do evil in the sight of the Lord. Behold, I am bringing disaster upon you, and I will utterly sweep you away … because of the provocation with which you have provoked Me to anger, and because you have misled Israel into sin.” … Yet it came about, when Ahab heard these words, that he tore his clothes and put on sackcloth and fasted, and he lay in sackcloth and went about despondently. Then the word of the Lord came to Elijah the Tishbite, saying, “Do you see how Ahab has humbled himself before Me? Because he has humbled himself before Me, I will not bring the disaster in his days; I will bring the disaster upon his house in his son’s days.” (1 Kgs 21:20-29)
The theme of God punishing bad behavior and rewarding good behavior is a prominent theme in the OT. It emphasizes repeatedly that moral behavior matters in a very direct and personal way. However, making moral choices to gain rewards and avoid punishment is an immature morality that appeals to selfish instincts. Perhaps the Israelites at that time were not yet ready for an altruistic morality. There are, however, hints of a more mature morality to come. Consider the following OT verses:
- Wash yourselves, make yourselves clean; Remove the evil of your deeds from My sight. Stop doing evil, learn to do good; seek justice, rebuke the oppressor, obtain justice for the orphan, plead for the widow’s case (Is 1:16-17); and
- “Yet even now,” declares the Lord, “Return to Me with all your heart, and with fasting, weeping, and mourning; and tear your heart and not merely your garments.” Now return to the Lord your God, For He is gracious and compassionate, slow to anger, abounding in mercy and relenting of catastrophe (Jl 2:12-13).
The OT makes it clear that moral behavior matters for earthly reasons, but also hints at an altruistic future where people will “stop doing evil” and “learn to do good” because it is God’s desire for us.
Moral behavior matters in the NT as well, but with a somewhat different focus. The NT is more interested in heavenly issues than earthly issues. In the following excerpt from Mark, Jesus explains the consequences of immoral behavior. In the excerpt from Matthew, Jesus makes it clear that failure to do good will have a similar effect. In Luke, Jesus explains that there are rewards for good moral choices, not just punishment for bad moral choices.
- [I]f your hand causes you to sin, cut it off; it is better for you to enter life maimed, than, having your two hands, to go into hell, into the unquenchable fire. And if your foot is causing you to sin, cut it off; it is better for you to enter life without a foot, than, having your two feet, to be thrown into hell. And if your eye is causing you to sin, throw it away; it is better for you to enter the kingdom of God with one eye, than, having two eyes, to be thrown into hell, where their worm does not die, and the fire is not extinguished (Mk 9:43-48);
- Depart from Me, you accursed people, into the eternal fire which has been prepared for the devil and his angels; for I was hungry, and you gave Me nothing to eat; I was thirsty, and you gave Me nothing to drink; I was a stranger, and you did not invite Me in; naked, and you did not clothe Me; sick, and in prison, and you did not visit Me. Then they themselves also will answer, “Lord, when did we see You hungry, or thirsty, or as a stranger, or naked, or sick, or in prison, and did not take care of You?” Then He will answer them, “Truly I say to you, to the extent that you did not do it for one of the least of these, you did not do it for Me, either.” These will go away into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal life (Mt 25:41-46); and
- But love your enemies and do good, and lend, expecting nothing in return; and your reward will be great, and you will be sons of the Most High (Lk 6:35).
Jesus taught that moral behavior matters. This teaching continues with the ministry of Paul, who echoes the teachings of Jesus on this matter in his letters to the Romans and Colossians.
- Or do you think lightly of the riches of His kindness and restraint and patience, not knowing that the kindness of God leads you to repentance? But because of your stubbornness and unrepentant heart you are storing up wrath for yourself on the day of wrath and revelation of the righteous judgment of God, who will repay each person according to his deeds: to those who by perseverance in doing good seek glory, honor, and immortality, He will give eternal life; but to those who are self-serving and do not obey the truth, but obey unrighteousness, He will give wrath and indignation (Rom 2:4-8).
- Whatever you do, do your work heartily, as for the Lord and not for people, knowing that it is from the Lord that you will receive the reward of the inheritance. It is the Lord Christ whom you serve. For the one who does wrong will receive the consequences of the wrong which he has done, and without partiality (Col 3:23-25).
In summary, moral behavior matters in Christianity. God will “repay each person according to his deeds.” In the OT, God tended to reward good moral behavior and punish bad moral behavior in earthly ways. In the NT, Jesus teaches us to act morally and to expect nothing in return, which is required for an act to be truly moral. However, if we do act morally for unselfish reasons, Jesus says that our “reward will be great.”
Moral Failings
A key aspect of Christian theology is about moral failings and the implications of our moral failings. This includes both specific moral failings (I did this bad thing) and our general moral health (I do bad things). The theme of moral failing starts at the very beginning of the Bible in Genesis, where Adam and Eve are instructed by God to not eat from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. They disobey this direct command from God, and people have been making poor moral choices ever since.
Recall the discussion on the Law of Human Nature, where our animal instincts are often in tension with moral choices. Paul recognizes this tension in his letters, referring to our “desires of the flesh” and “fruit of the spirit.” In his letter to the Galatians, Paul summarizes these competing forces as follows:
“But I say, walk by the Spirit, and you will not carry out the desire of the flesh. For the desire of the flesh is against the Spirit, and the Spirit against the flesh; for these are in opposition to one another, in order to keep you from doing whatever you want. But if you are led by the Spirit, you are not under the Law. Now the deeds of the flesh are evident, which are: sexual immorality, impurity, indecent behavior, idolatry, witchcraft, hostilities, strife, jealousy, outbursts of anger, selfish ambition, dissensions, factions, envy, drunkenness, carousing, and things like these, of which I forewarn you, just as I have forewarned you, that those who practice such things will not inherit the kingdom of God. But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, self-control; against such things there is no law.” (Gal 5:16-23)
Paul characterizes deeds of the flesh (i.e., immoral acts) as “evident.” Paul would agree that there is a Law of Human Nature that we do not need to be taught. Paul would also agree that keeping the Law of Human Nature is not easy, and results in frequent moral failings for everyone. In his letter to the Romans, he discusses this issue as it relates to the difference between Jews and Gentiles (non-Jews). Many of the Jews viewed themselves as morally better than the Gentiles since they followed the Law. Paul is quick to point out in his letter to the Romans that everyone has moral failings:
- Therefore you have no excuse, you foolish person, everyone of you who passes judgment; for in that matter in which you judge someone else, you condemn yourself; for you who judge practice the same things (Rom 2:1);
- What then? Are we better than they? Not at all; for we have already charged that both Jews and Greeks are all under sin (Rom 3:9); and
- [A]ll have sinned and fall short of the glory of God (Rom 3:23).
Christians refer to moral failings as sin (a sin is a transgression against God, such as disobeying his moral code). A core belief of every Christian is that we are all sinners. Our moral selves are broken and are in dire need of repair. We shouldn’t judge others for sinning because we do the very same things. Sin has power over everyone. God has written a standard of moral conduct on our hearts, and we choose to sin anyway. We all therefore fall short of the glory of God.
To understand Christian ethics, one must recognize that (1) everyone understands the basic differences between right and wrong, (2) we have the ability to make free moral choices, (3) we often sin by failing to make good moral choices, and (4) these sins are willful acts of disobedience against God.
Summary
Christians believe that people have free will and can therefore make true moral choices. Christians believe that certain moral choices are better than others, as determined by an absolute moral standard set by God. Christians believe that everyone is generally aware of this absolute moral standard and can therefore be held accountable for moral choices. Last, Christians believe that God is aware of and cares about our moral choices. Moral choices should be made in obedience to God, but with the understanding that God will ultimately “repay according to each one’s deeds.”
[Next: Ethics in the Old Testament]
[i] The Israelites are descendants of Jacob, whose name was later changed to Israel. The Israelites are therefore also referred to as the House of Jacob and the Sons of Israel. They are also generally referred to as Hebrews.
[ii] The Old Testament commandment is found in Exodus 21:23–27: “But if there is any further injury, then you shall appoint as a penalty life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, wound for wound, bruise for bruise.” This commandment is typically interpreted as the principle of reciprocal justice.
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