Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556). St. Ignatius was a Roman Catholic priest and theologian who was also the founder of the religious order the Society of Jesus, whose members are referred to as Jesuits (see Society of Jesus above in Events above). As a theologian, St. Ignatius developed a set of spiritual formation exercises consisting of meditations and prayers, including the Examen Prayer (see p. 435). These exercises were developed for lay Christians seeking to deepen their Christian faith and were to be practiced over a month-long period under the supervision of a spiritual advisor.
Martin Luther (1483–1546). Martin Luther is considered the Father of Protestantism, and his theology is the basis for Lutheranism. (See Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses in Events above). He was a priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, and professor. As a theologian, his major breaks from the Catholic church were that salvation is by faith alone (sola fide, as opposed to faith plus good works), that the only authority is Scripture (sola scriptura, as opposed to Scripture plus church tradition), that each individual can read and interpret Scripture for themselves, and that clergy can marry. Luther is also known for his “theology of the cross,” where Christ’s death on the cross is the only source of understanding for how God saves fallen mankind. Luther kept worship services similar to the Roman Catholic Mass, believing that anything not forbidden in the Bible is potentially acceptable. This is opposed to many other Protestant denominations that only included worship elements specifically described in the Bible. Lutheranism became the state religion of numerous states of northern Germany, and then spread through much of Scandinavia, Estonia and Latvia, and Lithuania.
Philip Melanchthon (1497–1560). Philip Melanchthon was a professor and theologian and a close collaborator with Martin Luther in developing Lutheran theology. He recorded Lutheran doctrine in his systematic theology treatise Loci Communes (or Loci Communes Rerum Theologicarum Seu Hypotyposes Theologicae), of which Luther said that there is no better book than the Holy Bible. Luther’s high opinion of Loci Communes is most likely why he did not write his own theological treatise. Melanchthon was also the main author of the Augsburg Confession, which is the primary confession of faith of the Lutheran Church and one of the most important documents of the Protestant Reformation. Key articles of the Augsburg Confession include salvation by faith alone, that baptism is necessary, that Christ’s real presence is in the Eucharistic elements, that people do not have free choice when it comes to salvation, that there is only one holy Christian church, and that this church is found wherever the gospel is preached in its truth and purity and the sacraments are administered according to the Gospel.
Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531). Zwingli was a Swiss priest in the canton of Zürich and the first major Protestant reformer after Luther, starting soon after Luther’s break from the Roman Catholic Church. Zwingli likely developed his theological positions independent of Luther but became more active in his reformation efforts after being exposed to Luther’s positions and seeing large points of agreement. However, Zwingli had a much more aggressive vision of a Reformed church when compared to Luther. Instead of eliminating elements of worship contrary to Biblical teaching, Zwingli advocated only the inclusion of elements specifically taught in the Bible. He also viewed the sacraments as simply public proclamations of faith, resulting in his famous clash with Luther over the real presence of Christ in the Eucharistic elements (Luther believed in real presence and Zwingli did not). Zwingli also radically changed Sunday worship service from Mass to expository preaching with a focus on exegetical examinations of biblical passages. He also advocated for the removal of all statues of saints in churches, resulting in a broader iconoclastic movement. Zwingli’s views received pushback from the Roman Catholic church, but Zwingli posthumously prevailed and Zurich severed its ties with the Roman Catholic church in 1954, three years after Zwingli’s death. Zwingli was killed in a battle between Protestants and Catholics while serving as an army chaplain.
John Calvin (1509–1564). John Calvin was a French theologian and the most important second-generation Reformer (with Luther and Zwingli being the most important in the first generation). Calvin was originally trained as a lawyer and moved to Switzerland after breaking with the Roman Catholic Church in 1530. He initially moved to Basel and later settled in Geneva, where he participated in Reformed efforts and regularly preached sermons. It was here in Geneva that Calvin published the first edition of his Institutes of the Christian Religion, which is considered one of the most influential works ever written related to Protestantism. Institutes is the doctrinal basis for Reformed churches and what is commonly referred to as Calvinism. Calvinism is often summarized by its five major points represented by the acronym TULIP: T for total depravity, U for unconditional election, L for limited atonement, I for irresistible grace, and P for the perseverance of the saints. Calvin’s reform efforts were ultimately successful, and the canton of Geneva broke from the Roman Catholic Church in 1541.
Theodore Beza (1519–1605). Theodore Beza was a French theologian who was a close student of John Calvin. He spent most of his life in Geneva and was the successor of Calvin as its Protestant leader. He and Calvin founded the Geneva Academy in 1559, which developed and taught Reformed doctrine. Beza also served as the chief pastor of the Geneva church until his death in 1605. Beza wrote extensively on Reformed theology and, for the most part, followed Calvin’s position in the Institutes. But some distinguish Calvin’s more pastoral presentation of doctrine with Beza’s academic and systematic approach, including Beza’s strong emphasis on predestination and the absolute sovereignty of God. These were also the positions taken in Calvin’s writings but with a much lower prominence. Reformed theology today is better thought of as the theology of Beza rather than Calvin. This is why it can be confusing to refer to Reformed theology as Calvinism.John Knox (1514–1572). The Scottish Reformation of 1560 resulted in a large number of churches seceding from the Roman Catholic church and forming the national Church of Scotland. The Reformation movement was led by John Knox, a Scot who had previously lived in Geneva at the same time as John Calvin and was thereby familiar with Reformed theology. Upon returning to Scotland, Knox led the Reformation and helped to write the Scots Confession of 1560.
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