Eastern Orthodoxy begins with the understanding that the people and practices closest in time to Christ and early Christianity are the most reliable sources of correct theology and correct church practices. Eastern Orthodoxy therefore seeks to preserve these traditions and to not let them be corrupted by modern inventions.
The importance of staying true to early church teachings is perhaps best demonstrated by the event that resulted in the separation of the Eastern Orthodox church from the Roman Catholic church. The original Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed states, “I believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father.” In the late 6th century, some Latin Churches began to add “and the Son” to this statement, referred to as the filioque clause (filioque means “and the son” in Latin). The Eastern churches felt that this was an innovation unsupported by Scripture and a theological error. The Latin speaking and Greek speaking churches were already culturally separated, and the filioque clause controversy resulted in the Eastern Greek churches under the leadership of the Bishop of Constantinople separating from the Western Latin churches under the leadership of the Bishop of Rome (i.e., the Pope). This separation is known as the East-West Schism of 1054.
Along with the split from Rome, the Eastern Orthodox church naturally rejects the doctrine that the Pope is the supreme head of Christianity. Along with this, additional aspects of Roman Catholic doctrine are also rejected such as papal supremacy, papal infallibility, the immaculate conception of Mary, the bodily assumption of Mary, the efficacy of indulgences, and the existence of Purgatory.
Viewing itself as the preserver of apostolic knowledge, the Eastern Orthodox church gives doctrinal authority, as with the Roman Catholic church, to both Scripture and to church tradition. In addition, the Eastern Orthodox church considers the rulings of first seven ecumenical councils as authoritative. A summary of the rulings of the rulings of these ecumenical councils that the Eastern Orthodox church considers authoritative is:
- First Council of Nicaea (325). Affirmed the full divinity of Jesus Christ in the first version of the Nicene Creed (p. 408). See also p. 43;
- First Council of Constantinople (381). Affirmed the full divinity of the Holy Spirit in the second version of the Nicene Creed, technically called the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed (p. 408). The Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed is therefore considered authoritative. See also p. 44;
- Council of Ephesus (431). Affirmed Jesus Christ as the Incarnate Word of God and Mary as the God-bearer (Theotokos in Greek). See also p. 44;
- Council of Chalcedon (451). Defined Christ as a single person who is both fully God and fully human. The complete position is stated in the Chalcedonian Definition (see p. 409). The Chalcedonian Definition is therefore considered authoritative. See also p. 44;
- Second Council of Constantinople (553). Reconfirmed the doctrinal rulings of the first four ecumenical councils;
- Third Council of Constantinople (680). Affirmed that Christ has both a human will and a divine will; and
- Second Council of Nicaea (787). Restored the use and veneration of icons, which had been previously forbidden within the Byzantine Empire by imperial edict.
In addition to Scripture, tradition, and the first seven ecumenical councils, the Eastern Orthodox church also considers the writings of the Greek Fathers authoritative. This is especially true of Athanasius, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, John Chrysostom, and Cyril of Alexandria, all of whom are venerated as saints. The trio of Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus and John Chrysostom are also known as the Three Holy Hierarchs. Summaries of the doctrinal teachings of these Greek Church Fathers are now provided.
- Athanasius (c.296–373). Athanasius is best known for his stand against Arianism and his insistence that the Son was not created by the Father. Rather, the Son is co-eternal with the Father and is therefore fully divine. Athanasius also taught that the Holy Spirit is fully divine, and that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are all of the same essence (homoousios). See also p. 48;
- Gregory of Nazianzus (c.329–390). Gregory of Nazianzus (also known as Gregory the Theologian) made significant contributions to the doctrine of the Trinity. As such, he is often referred to as the Trinitarian Theologian. Specifically, Gregory taught that the Holy Spirit’s relationship to the Father is different from that of the Son. Whereas the Son is eternally begotten by the Father, Gregory holds that the Holy Spirit eternally proceeds from the Father. Debates about this topic led to the East-West Schism, as the Latin Churches began to teach that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son. See also p. 48;
- Basil the Great (330–379). Basil the Great (also known as Basil of Caesarea) was, like Athanasius, heavily involved in fighting the Arian heresy. In doing so, Basil developed the concept of the three persons of the Trinity being of the same substance and coined the term ousia, to refer to this substance. He also asserted that the three aspects of the Trinity are distinct “persons” and coined the term hypostasis to refer to a divine person.
- Gregory of Nyssa (c.335–c. 394). Gregory of Nyssa taught orthodox Trinitarian theology as described above, but also taught that God is infinite. Because God is infinite, He is incomprehensible to the finite minds of created beings. This teaching has been highly influential in Eastern Orthodox theology with its focus on the ineffability of God and a resulting emphasis on apophatic theology.
- John Chrysostom (c.347–407). Chrysostom is best remembered for his eloquent oratory skill and sermons, which are often used to better understand how the early church fathers interpreted and preached Scripture. He also, like Gregory of Nyssa, taught of the incomprehensible nature of God. However, Chrysostom taught that God is knowable to the extent that He reveals himself. See also p. 49;
- Cyril of Alexandria (c.376–444). Cyril is best known for his fight against Nestorianism. Whereas Nestorianism understands Christ as the union between a divine person and a human person (i.e., two hypostases), Cyril insists that Christ is only a single person. This is referred to as the hypostatic union. Christ is the God-man (Theanthropos), and therefore the Virgin Mary is the God-bearer (Theotokos). Cyril also believed that the power of Christ is so powerful that it can spread to people, strengthen one’s union with God, and ultimately result in deification.
Based on the creeds, the councils, and the Fathers, it can be seen that Eastern Orthodox theology emphasizes the doctrine of the Trinity (one God consisting of three Persons) and the doctrine of Christ (a single Person who’s divine and human nature are in a hypostatic union). But these beliefs are true of all orthodox theologies and do not really capture the different theological approach of Eastern Orthodoxy. When reading Vladimir Lossky’s Orthodox Theology: An Introduction, one is struck by how different it is when compared to Protestant systematic theology textbooks. Lossky writes:
“[Theology] must fertilize itself from instants of eschatological silence and attempt to express, or at least to suggest, the ineffable. Nourished with contemplation, it does not become established in silence but seeks to speak the silence, humbly, by a new use of thought and word. That is why theology must be praise and must dispose us to praise God.”[i]
Lossky explains that faith is a mystery. God can only by grasped by not grasping and known by not knowing. As such, Eastern Theology is primarily apophatic rather than kataphatic. Theological mysteries are described by what they are not rather than the typical Western approach of making positive statements. Lossky explains (emphasis in the original), “That is why the apophatic (i.e., negative) way has been adopted by Christians … It is a prostration before the living God, radically ungraspable, unobjectifiable and unknowable, because He is personal, because He is the free plenitude of personal existence. Apophasis is the inscription in human language, in theological language, of the mystery of faith.”[ii]
Western thought tends to see two separate approaches to religion: intellectual and mystical. This is perhaps most clearly described by the philosopher Henri-Louis Bergson (1859–1941), who distinguishes between the “static religion” of a doctrinally-focused approach and the “dynamic religion” of a mystical approach. Static religion tends to be social and conservative whereas dynamic religion tends to be personal and creative. But Eastern Orthodoxy rejects this dichotomy and considers theology and mysticism inseparable. In The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church, Lossky writes:
“[W]e must live the dogma expressing a revealed truth, which appears to us as an unfathomable mystery, in such a fashion that instead of assimilating the mystery to our mode of understanding, we should, on the contrary, look for a profound change, an inner transformation of spirit, enabling us to experience it mystically. Far from being mutually opposed, theology and mysticism support and complete each other. One is impossible without the other.”[iii]
God’s essence is unknowable, but believers can directly experience God’s activity, referred to as God’s energy (energeia in Greek). This is particularly true of God’s grace. Through grace, the indwelling Holy Spirit restores and strengthens our union with God, referred to as deification (theosis).
In summary, the theological content of Eastern Orthodoxy is similar to Roman Catholicism minus the Pope and papal decrees. But the practice of theology is markedly different, with a focus on negation, mystical experience, and personal deification. Selected other specifics of Eastern Orthodoxy include the following:
- Much of Scripture interpreted allegorically, with a focus on what the Holy Spirit is trying to teach rather than a focus on literal inerrancy;
- Seven sacraments are recognized, essentially the same ones as the Roman Catholic church: baptism, Chrismation (i.e., confirmation), Eucharist, Healing (i.e., Holy Unction), marriage, confession, and ordination;
- Transubstantiation of the Eucharistic elements is believed, although in a less specific form when compared to Roman Catholicism;
- Kenosis in Phil 2:6-7 refers to Christ relinquishing His divine glory by becoming man and subjecting Himself to humiliation and death;
- Divorce is allowed, whereas the Roman Catholic church only recognizes annulment.
Since Eastern Orthodoxy combines intellectual study and mystical experience, it is difficult (if not impossible) to grasped through study alone. Rather, Eastern Orthodoxy has a personal aspect that needs to be experienced. Interested readers are encouraged to find a local Eastern Orthodox church, some who now hold services in English, and attend a service.
[i] Vladimir Lossky, Orthodox Theology: An Introduction, Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1978: 13.
[ii] Ibid., 23-24.
[iii] Vladimir Lossky, The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church, Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1976: 8.
Leave a Reply