Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609). Jacobus Arminius was a Dutch minister, professor, and theologian during the Protestant Reformation period. He developed a theology that is the basis for Arminianism and the Dutch Remonstrant movement. His theology is also substantially the basis for Wesleyanism and the theology of the Methodist church. Of the five points of Reformed theology, Arminius disagreed with the following three: unconditional election, limited atonement, and irresistible grace. Reformed theology teaches that Christ died for the elect only, and that the elect cannot resist grace. Arminianism teaches that Christ died for all, and it is up to each individual to either accept or reject grace. Arminianism was codified shortly after the death of Arminius with the publication of the Five Articles of Remonstrance in 1610. These include conditional election; unlimited atonement; total depravity; prevenient grace and resistible grace; and the conditional preservation of the saints. The Synod of Dort was called in 1618–1916 (see Synod of Dort in events) largely to condemn Arminianism, resulting in the persecution of Arminian pastors who remained in the Netherlands.
Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758). Edwards was an American revivalist preacher and theologian. He is perhaps best known for his role in the First Great Awakening, which was a non-denominational evangelical movement where large crowds would gather for extemporaneous preaching, typically in outdoor settings. But Edwards was also an important American theologian who defended Reformed theology against Arminians and Unitarians, but at the same time argued for some modifications. Edwards’ work was continued by Joseph Bellamy and Samuel Hopkins, resulting in a theology first known as Hopkinsianism and later New England Theology. Some of the modifications that New England Theology made to Reformed theology include (1) a different understanding of original guilt; and (2) making a strict distinction between the natural ability and the moral inability of a person to follow Christ.
John Wesley (1703–1791). John Wesley was an English theologian and evangelist who was originally ordained as an Anglican priest. He spent several years evangelizing in Savanah, Georgia, and then returned to England and joined a Moravian religious society. Around 1738, Wesley experienced a religious conversion experience and shortly thereafter started his own ministry, largely based on Arminian theology. His primary theological differences with Arminianism are the possibility of Christians living a sin-free life (called Perfectionism or Entire Sanctification) and the efficacy of sacraments in the process of Christian sanctification (although not for justification). Wesley is also known for recognizing four legitimate sources of doctrine, called the Wesleyan Quadrilateral. Scripture is the primary source, but it is also appropriate to consider reason, tradition, and personal experience. Followers of Wesley were called Methodists due to the methodical way in which they lived out their Christian life. Wesley always maintained that he was an Anglican, but Methodism became a separate denomination several years after his death.
Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834). Friedreich Schleiermacher was a Prussian pastor, professor, and theologian who made significant contributions to numerous fields of study including hermeneutics, philosophy, and theology. He is commonly referred to as the Father of Liberal Theology, as his system offers a pious alternative to the inductive system of the conservative Reformed tradition. Schleiermacher published his first great work, On Religion, in 1799. He published it anonymously but was soon discovered as the author. The impact of On Religion was immense. At the time, rationalism dominated Enlightenment theologians and supernaturalism dominated conservative theologians. On Religion was a strong challenge to both positions. Schleiermacher’s theology was subjective and focused on achieving a sense of absolute dependence on God. His approach was partly a reaction to Kant’s writings on the limits of reason and partly a reaction to the German romanticism emphasis on sturm und drang (profound emotional experience), silent reflection, and introspection. Schleiermacher’s view was that authority is derived from the direct experience of the grace of God through the redemptive work of Jesus Christ and the presence of the Holy Spirit in the Body of Christ. This authority from personal religious experience, according to Schleiermacher, is even higher than Scripture. He also believed in the possibility of redemption after death and therefore universal salvation. In support of these beliefs, Schleiermacher argues that eternal blessedness in Heaven would be impossible knowing certain loved ones are facing eternal torture.
Charles Hodge (1797–1878). Charles Hodge was a Reformed Presbyterian theologian and professor at Princeton Theological Seminary. He was a leading voice for Princeton Theology, which was a very conservative version of Reformed theology. Many of the positions of Hodge have been taken by modern-day Fundamentalists and Evangelicals. His three-volume work on systematic theology (1872–1873) is among the most cited of any in the Reformed tradition. He also had an inestimable impact on the growth of Reformed churches as he instructed more than 3000 ministers over his 50 years at Princeton.
Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855). Kierkegaard was a Danish philosopher and theologian who is known as the Father of Existentialism. He was a prolific writer in many areas including organized religion, ethics, psychology, and the philosophy of religion. Kierkegaard’s two main contributions to theology relate to subjectivity and faith. With regards to subjectivity, he stressed the importance of distinguishing between objective reality and a person’s subjective reaction to this reality. Two people may essentially believe the same thing to be true but respond to that truth in radically different ways. With regards to faith, Kierkegaard believed that true faith must always be accompanied by some measure of doubt, as a certain belief does not require faith. The rational part of a person will always have doubts about spiritual truths, and a “leap of faith” is required to make a commitment. Kierkegaard therefore saw Christians who did not admit of any doubts about Christian doctrine as not having true faith, but merely being incredulous.
Albrecht Ritschl (1822–1889). Albrecht Ritschl was a German Protestant theologian. He was strongly influenced by both Luther and Schleiermacher and developed a systematic theology that applied Kant’s philosophical works on pure reason to Lutheran theology. There is a strong emphasis on the community of believers in Ritschl’s work as he believes that the immediate object of theological knowledge is not the faith of the individual but the faith of the community. Ritschl did not believe in miracles, including the incarnation and the triune God. However, Ritschl felt that the moral instructions of the NT could result in a Christian community forming a Kingdom of God on earth where everyone has faith that one should make good moral decisions. Ritschl therefore places a strong emphasis on ethical instruction and on the development of people in the context of community.
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