Pre-Reformation State of Christianity

This history covered by this post begins several centuries before the Protestant Reformation. The events that occurred during this time set the stage for the Reformation to play out as it did. Certain specifics are elaborated in the Events section below, but this section presents an overall if simplified narrative of major historical trends that resulted in much of western Christendom being open to a split from the Roman Catholic church in the early sixteenth century.

The Black Death ravaged Europe from 1346 to 1353 with a bubonic plague pandemic that killed approximately 50 million people. Estimates are that this was about a third to a half of the European population at the time. Many Christians (most Europeans were Christian at the time) wondered if this tragedy and its associated economic devastation might be God exacting justice on a Church that seemed to have an increasing element of corruption.

The Roman Catholic church (Church) at the time had grown into a political and economic entity in addition to a religious entity. A combination of political and economic factors resulted in many religious positions being sold to the wealthy, a practice known as simony (after Simon Magus, see Acts 8:18). Simony resulted in less-than-pious people holding many high positions in churches and in monasteries. These people often flouted sexual promiscuity, placed their illegitimate children in monasteries, and led conspicuous and indulgent lifestyles.

In addition to the impious lifestyles of many Church leaders, the Church also increasingly emphasized the sale of indulgences, where monetary donations to the Church were said to result in the forgiveness of one’s sins and even the forgiveness of deceased loved ones presumed to be in Purgatory. Salvation was therefore a strictly a Church-controlled process. Holy Communion was required for the forgiveness of minor sins (called venial). Confession to a priest and absolution from a priest was required for the forgiveness of major sins (called mortal). The payment of indulgences were optional but were the only way to reduce the duration of one’s stay in the cleansing fires of Purgatory.

The combination of Church corruption, Church leader impiety, and a focus on rituals to address personal sin resulted in many Christians not experiencing spiritual fulfillment. This was especially true for Gerard Groote (1340–1384), a Dutch deacon and theologian. Groote started a religious movement called Devotio Moderna (Modern Devotion), which emphasized the importance of pious living including personal humility, obedience, simplicity of life, and community with others pursuing a Christlike life. Based on the principles of Devotio Moderna, Groote also founded the Brethren of the Common Life, a religious organization where men lived together communally, gave up their material possessions, and devoted every waking hour to prayer, preaching, the study of scripture, copying manuscripts, and performing work required to support the community. A female equivalent organization was also established called the Sisters of the Common Life.

The practical theology of Devotio Moderna was captured by Thomas à Kempis (c.1380–1471) in his book The Imitation of Christ. Kempis was a German-Dutch priest and had encountered the Brethren of the Common Life when attending a Latin school in Deventer from ages 12 to 18. After leaving school, Thomas went to the nearby city of Zwolle, where his brother Johan was the prior of the Monastery of Mount St. Agnes. This monastic community was founded by disciples of Groote and was the monastic equivalent of a Brethen community. Thomas joined St. Agnes in 1406, was eventually ordained a priest, and became subprior in 1429.

Kempis started writing what would become The Imitation of Christ in 1418. At this time, he had the responsibility of instructing novices. To aid in this task, Kempis wrote four booklets between 1418 and 1427. These booklets were later collected and named after the title of the first chapter of the first booklet. The four booklets that make up Imitation provide spiritual instruction on how to live a life in accordance with the principles of Devotio Moderna. They are titled “Helpful Counsels of the Spiritual Life, “Directives for the Interior Life,” “On Interior Consolation,” and “On the Blessed Sacrament.”

Although Imitation was not overtly critical of Roman Catholicism, it was initially read in the context of Devotio Moderna and therefore highlighted the contrast between a Christlike life as compared to the impious lives of many priests, bishops, monks, friars, and oftentimes the Pope. It was widely read and was highly influential at the time. Imitation continues to be highly influential today. Imitation been translated from its original Latin into almost as many languages as the Bible and has been the most widely read Christian devotional book apart from the Bible. Specific major figures who say that they were impacted by Imitation include St. Ignatius of Loyola, Erasmus of Rotterdam, John Wesley, and Saint Thérèse of Lisieux.

The Devotio Moderna movement was focused on individuals pursuing a pious and Christlike life while still being a member of the Church in good standing. But there were also efforts to reform the Church itself. The Reformation proper is understood to have begun with Martin Luther, but there were several important “proto-reformers” that led up to Luther. The most significant of these were John Wycliffe (c.1330–1384) and Jan Hus (1370–1415).

John Wycliffe was an English theologian, Oxford professor, and priest. He wrote extensively, including on topics that challenged Church practices and certain aspects of Church theology. His biggest behavioral critique was the accumulation of excessive wealth by the Church, monks, and friars. He also condemned the related practices of simony and the selling of indulgences. Theologically, Wycliff believed that the doctrine of transubstantiation (see p. 193) was idolatrous and unscriptural. He also believed that the Bible should be read directly by all Christians and advanced this position by translating the Latin Vulgate into English, resulting in the Wycliffe Bible. This translation was used in preaching by Wycliffe’s followers, who were called Lollards.[i] Wycliffe is widely considered the first reformer and is commonly referred to as the Morningstar of the Reformation.

Jan Hus was a Czech theologian and priest. Hus was strongly influenced by Wycliffe and preached against many of the same Church practices such as simony, the sale of indulgences, and the doctrine of transubstantiation. Hus was excommunicated for his teaching by Pope Alexander V but was given the promise of safe conduct to defend himself at the Council of Constance in 1415. Hus refused to disavow his views and, in violation of the promise of safe conduct, was burned at the stake for heresy. Hus’s execution resulted in his followers, called Hussites, initiating a series of civil wars between the Hussites and Roman Catholic forces. These Bohemian civil wars, called the Hussite Wars, started in 1419 and lasted until 1434.

The Council of Constance was not called primarily to try Hus. Rather, it was called to address the issue of having three claimants to the papacy: Gregory XII at Rome, Benedict XIII at Avignon, and John XXIII. The period of multiple papal claimants is called the Great Schism (see below in Events). When none were willing to step down, the Council of Constance was called and declared that the rulings of an ecumenical council supersede the authority of the Pope (or popes). This allowed the Council of Constance to depose the existing papal claimants and to elect a single new Pope, Martin V.

The view than the authority of an ecumenical council is higher than the authority of the Pope is called conciliarism. Although the conciliar movement started primarily to address the Great Schism, it also involved the hope of Church reform. These conciliar reform concerns initially included both papal abuses of power and the doctrinal authority of council rulings versus papal decrees. But reform through conciliarism was not to be as clearly evidenced by the Council of Constance. As mentioned previously, this council burned Hus as the stake for his reform positions. In addition, the Council posthumously declared Wycliffe a heretic due to his reform positions, ordered all of his writings to be burned, and ordered that his remains be exhumed from holy ground, burned, and disposed (they were dispersed in the River Swift). Furthermore, subsequent Popes fought vigorously against conciliarism for about a century and eventually won the battle. Conciliarism was finally condemned at the Fifth Lateran Council (1512–1517).

Overt reform efforts did not occur for about another century, no doubt discouraged by the treatment of Wycliffe and Hus at Constance. But in the early sixteenth century, two figures arose who both aggressively pursued Church reforms. These two men are Erasmus of Rotterdam (c.1466–1536) and Martin Luther (1483–1546), whose reform efforts occurred at the same time but used very different approaches.

Desiderius Erasmus was born in Rotterdam around 1466 to a priest and the daughter of a physician. Although Erasmus’s parents could not legally marry (priests could not marry), they still lived as a loving family and provided Erasmus with an excellent education starting at age six. At age nine, Erasmus and his older brother Peter were sent to Deventer to attend one of the best Latin schools in the Netherlands that was affiliated with St. Lebuin’s Church. This was the same school that Thomas à Kempis had attended and where he was exposed to the teachings of the Brethren of the Common Life.

In 1483 when Erasmus was about 17, both of his parents died from the bubonic plague. Erasmus and his brother were then transferred to a less expensive school at ‘s-Hertogenbosch, which was run by the Brethren. It was here that Erasmus was further exposed to the Christian life of Devotio Moderna and to Kempis’s Imitation of Christ. The Brethen and Kempis’s focus on piety strongly influenced Erasmus, resulting in a lifelong focus on inner spirituality as opposed to outward religious ritual.

After a year at ‘s-Hertogenbosch, Erasmus started the process of becoming an Augustinian monk at the monastery in Stein. He took his vows about a year later and was eventually ordained as a priest. There is not room here to present the fascinating life of Erasmus from this point forward. But suffice to say that he became a leading figure in the western European humanist movement, which focused on educating people based on classical Latin, Greek, and patristic texts. In his humanist efforts, Erasmus taught himself Greek, translated many Greek classics into Latin, and became very well-known and respected.

In 1509, Erasmus traveled to Rome and became acquainted with many of the powerful associates of Pope Julius. This included Cardinal Giovanni de’ Medici, who would later become Pope Leo X. During his time in Rome, Erasmus was exposed to the excesses and impious lifestyles of many high Church officials. Such excesses had been previously criticized in a scholastic manner by people such as Wycliffe and Hus, but Erasmus used a different and far more effective tactic: ridicule.

Soon after his stay in Rome, Erasmus began an essay that parodied what he observed in Rome. This satire was first published in 1511 and was called In Praise of Folly. Michael Massing describes its criticisms as follows:

“Erasmus reproaches bishops for being too busy feeding themselves to think about caring for their sheep, cardinals for failing to understand that they are the stewards rather than the lords of spiritual affairs, and, finally and most fiercely, the popes. If the supreme pontiffs were to recall that they are Christ’s representatives on earth, they would give up their wealth, honors, power won by victories, dispensations and indulgences, and horses, mules, and carts, and offer instead vigils, fasts, prayers, and sermons.”[ii]

In Praise of Folly was hugely popular and greatly diminished the common people’s respect for Church officials, including the Pope, throughout Europe. Many consider its publication the start of the Protestant Reformation, as the Reformation could not have happened without widespread dissatisfaction with the Church and the behavior of its leaders.

In studying Greek, Erasmus became aware of many grammatical issues in the Latin Vulgate. He therefore undertook the huge effort of creating a Greek NT from original manuscripts and a new Latin translation based on the original Greek (see p. 24). Erasmus also included copious translation notes discussing the original Greek and his choices for translation. Erasmus was highly critical of Church excesses but was always loyal to the papacy and wanted the Church to reform from within. However, his NT translation gave others theological ammunition. Examples include the following:

• In Mt 16:18, Christ says to Peter, “And I also say to you that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build My church; and the gates of Hades will not overpower it.” Since Peter’s name in Greek means rock (Petros), the Church maintained that Peter and the succeeding bishops of Rome were the Christ-ordained head of the Church. Erasmus explains that the original Greek indicates that the “rock” in this verse likely refers to faith in Christ. That is, the Church is built on faith in Christ, not Peter and his successors. This interpretation eliminates any scriptural foundation for the papacy.
• In the Vulgate, Mt 3:2 reads, “Poenitentian agitate: appropinquavit enim regnum caelorum.” The English equivalent is, “Do penance: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.” Erasmus pointed out that the Greek work that Jerome translated into poenitentian is metanoia (μετάνοια), which means to repent and not to do penance. This change eliminates any scriptural foundation for the sacrament of penance.
• Although not in Jerome’s initial translation, some later versions of the Vulgate contained the following added words in 1 Jn 5:8 (added words in brackets): “Quoniam tres sunt, qui testimonium dant [in caelo: Pater, Verbum, et Spiritus Sanctus: et hi tres unum sunt. Et tres sunt, qui testimonium dant in terra]: spiritus, et aqua, et sanguis: et hi tres unum sunt.” The English equivalent of these added words are: “in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost: and these three are one.” This phrase, referred to as the Johannine Comma (Latin: Comma Johanneum), was the main scriptural basis for the doctrine of the trinity. Erasmus did not include these words in his first two NT editions since they did not appear in any of the earliest Greek manuscripts. However, Erasmus included them in his third edition after being accused of reviving the Arian heresy. Later, the Johannine Comma was commonly included in textus receptus Bible translations including the KJV and the NKJV.

And so, Erasmus was a respected scholar who pointed out Church excesses and diminished the status of Vatican officials, priests, monks, and friars. With this in mind, we now turn from Erasmus to Martin Luther, who was about 17 years his younger.

Luther was born in 1483 and was raised in the copper mining town of Mansfeld. He attended Latin schools in Mansfeld and then began attending schools run by the Brethren of the Common Life at age 13. At age 17, Luther enrolled at the University of Erfurt and received his master’s degree in 1505. Per his father’s wishes, Luther then enrolled in law school but soon quit and joined St. Augustine’s Monastery.

Luther was ordained a priest in 1507 and began teaching theology at the University of Wittenberg the following year. He received a bachelor’s degree in biblical studies in 1508, another bachelor’s degree in Peter Lombard’s Sentences in 1509, and his Doctor of Theology in 1512.

During this time, Luther was obsessed with his own sin and the need for extensive penance sessions to ensure the forgiveness of these sins. Between 1510 and 1520, Luther’s lectured on Psalms, Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. In in developing these lectures, Luther gradually changed his understanding of mankind’s sin and how to become righteous in the eyes of God. Instead of sin being forgiven through the work of penance, Luther realized that God grants the free gift of righteousness through faith by grace, with no involvement of the sinful person whatsoever. This understanding would later become a theological foundation of Protestantism. But Luther’s belief in justification by faith alone was not what initially caused friction between him and the Church.

In the time of Luther, the sale of indulgences was a major source of revenue for the Church. This practice had been criticized by the likes of Wycliffe and Hus, but its abuse had escalated even further. The pope at the time, Leo X, had depleted the Vatican’s savings, largely due to the massive costs being incurred in the rebuilding of St. Peter’s cathedral. To raise funds, he created hundreds of new Vatican positions that were sold for exorbitant prices. He also greatly expanded the sale of indulgences. Michael Massing writes:

“These [new indulgences] came in many varieties. There were confessional letters that freed the penitent from having to confess to a local priest. There were dispensations that allowed the substitution of other good works for vows that had been made in haste and were difficult to keep. There were the ever popular “butter letters,” which permitted the consumption of eggs, milk, and cheese during fast days. There were even indulgences that sanctioned the possession of illegally acquired goods if the rightful owners had died or could not be found.”[iii]

Near Wittenberg, these indulgences were being aggressively sold by Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar. Luther’s new views on justification by faith alone made him question the value of indulgences, especially when purchased by people who could not afford them. Luther therefore proposed an academic debate on indulgences by drafting his “95 theses” and, as tradition understands it, posted them on the doors of All Saints’ Church in Wittenberg. Although Luther’s intent was simply to organize a debate on the issue of indulgences, his 95 theses were quickly printed and distributed widely throughout Germany and the rest of Europe. This started a pamphlet war between Luther and Tetzel, where one would write a pamphlet criticizing the other and the other would respond in kind. These pamphlet wars made Luther a household name and brought him to the attention of the Vatican.

There is much to Luther’s story that cannot be told here. Suffice to say that the Pope demanded from Luther a full and unconditional recanting of his writings and Luther categorically refused. Luther was therefore condemned at the Diet of Worms in 1521. Frederick the Wise of Saxony feared for Luther’s safety and organized to have Luther kidnapped while he was traveling back to Wittenberg. Luther was secretly taken to Wartburg Castle, where he remained for about 18 months. During this time, Luther created his German translation of the NT from Erasmus’s Latin translation.

Luther’s excommunication and condemnation by the Church set off a string of peasant revolts that ultimately resulted in self-governing cities and regions gradually declaring their religious independence from the Roman Catholic church. Erasmus, who had previously written Luther letters of encouragement, was petitioned for support from both sides, but tried his best to remain neutral.

And so, Luther completed what Wycliffe and Hus has started a century before, some say prophetically. In the Czech language, Hus literally means goose. While waiting to be burned at the stake, Hus prophesied, “Now they roast a goose, but in a hundred years they shall hear a swan singing, which they will not be able to do away with.”[iv] Luther was strongly influenced by Hus and believed that he himself was the fulfillment of this prophesy, as his condemnation at the Diet of Worms happened about 100 years after Hus was killed.

With this summary of the pre-Reformation state of Christianity complete, this chapter now continues with key theological events, starting about 200 years before Luther and Erasmus.

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[i]        Lollard now refers to a follower of John Wycliffe. But it was originally used as a generic derogatory term for someone uneducated. Synonymous terms were Lollardi and Loller. These terms are most likely derived from the Middle Dutch verb lollen, which means to mutter or mumble.

[ii]        Micheal Massing, Fatal Discord: Erasmus, Luther, and the Fight for the Western Mind, New York, NY: Harper Perennial, 2018: 195.

[iii]       Ibid., 275.

[iv]       Caleb Cangelosi, “The Mouth of the Morningstar: John Wycliffe’s Preaching and the Protestant Reformation,” Puritan Reformed Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, July 2014: 208.