Major Theological Systems

Systematic theology can generally be divided into Roman Catholic systems and Protestant systems. Protestant systems can be further divided into orthodox, neoorthodox, and liberal. Orthodox systems are based primarily on Scripture and tend to interpret the Bible quite literally. Liberal systems are based primarily on personal religious experiences and tend to interpret the Bible much less literally. Neoorthodox systems fall somewhere in the middle. Brief summaries of the major theological systems are now provided.

Roman Catholic Theology. Roman Catholic theology is fundamentally different from Protestant theology because it teaches that God’s revelation to man occurs through the Roman Catholic church in addition to Scripture and creation. Therefore, there is much to Roman Catholic theology that is not directly linked to Scripture, but rather to church tradition. For example, Roman Catholic theology treats topics such as the sacraments and the afterlife in ways that do not resemble the Protestant approach. Roman Catholic theology is also heavily influenced by the work of Thomas Aquinas, who used the philosophical framework of Aristotle as a model for his theological system, often called Thomistic philosophy, Thomistic theology, or simply Thomism.

Lutheran Theology. The orthodox theology of Lutheranism was developed by Martin Luther after he was excommunicated from the Roman Catholic church in what was the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. Several of the theological differences of Lutheranism as compared to Roman Catholicism include (1) Scripture as the only authoritative source for Christian knowledge (i.e., Roman Catholic church tradition is not a valid source of authority); (2) salvation through faith alone (i.e., not faith plus good works); and (3) the ability of everyone to read and interpret the Bible for themselves (i.e., valid interpretation is not limited to Roman Catholic clergy).

Reformed Theology. This is a conservative orthodox Protestant system often called Calvinism and is strongly associated with the doctrine of predestination. Reformed theology teaches that, before creation, God predestined a certain number of people (the elect) to be saved with the remainder predestined not to be saved (the reprobate). Reformed theology is the preferred label since it can be argued that John Calvin would not agree with certain elements of Reformed theology in either importance or substance. Reformed theology is based solely on a strict literal interpretation Scripture, is a highly developed and logical system, and is a good place to start when studying systematic theology. Reformed theology is closely associated with the Presbyterian denomination.

 Arminian Theology. Arminian theology is named for its founder, Jacobus Arminius. It is an orthodox system and is similar to Reformed theology except it denies the predestination of the elect. Rather, Arminianism believes that everyone has the opportunity and free will to believe in the Gospel message and therefore be saved. Arminian theology is closely associated with the Methodist denomination and is sometimes called Wesleyan-Arminianism, after John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, who made several modifications.

Liberal Theology. Friedreich Schleiermacher is often called the father of liberal theology. He maintains that all religion is ultimately a personal experience. Therefore, one’s personal religious experiences take precedent over every other source including Scripture. The religious goal of Schleiermacher is to have a feeling of ultimate dependence on God, which has been criticized as being subjective. Schleiermacher also believes in universal salvation, including the possibility of salvation after death. In his view, it would be impossible for anyone to experience eternal blessedness in Heaven while knowing that certain loved ones are suffering for all of eternity in Hell. Today, liberal theologies tend to view knowledge and experience as having a higher authority than Scripture when forming doctrine. The Bible is therefore treated as a historical work of humans without divine authority, and that living a Christ-like life is more important than doctrine.

Neoorthodox Theology. The theology of Karl Barth was the first neoorthodox system and has been highly influential. He developed it in reaction against the increasingly liberal theologies of the 19^th and 20^th centuries. Neoorthodox theologies use many of the same terms as orthodox theologies (e.g., the Trinity, Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior, the Kingdom of God). They do not, however believe in a Bible that is literally true and inerrant. Neoorthodox theologies also tend to emphasize the ineffability of God, and that God’s infinite nature precludes us from describing him in precise and logical ways. Rather, neoorthodox theologies use a dialectical method where seemingly contradictory or paradoxical metaphysical teachings of the Bible are discussed together and do not necessarily need to be reconciled. Other prominent neoorthodox theologians include Rudolf Bultmann, Reinhold Niebuhr, and Dietrich Bonhoeffer.

Eastern Orthodox Theology. Eastern Orthodox theology is a general term referring to the theological approach of the Eastern Orthodox denominations such as Greek, Russian, and Ukrainian. It is primarily based on the theology of the patristic age to the end of the Byzantine empire. Eastern Orthodox theology is also heavily influenced by Greek Platonic thought, which is seen to be a philosophical improvement over a strict Bible-based theology. Therefore, early Eastern Orthodox theology is commonly called Byzantine theology, and later Eastern Orthodox theology is commonly called Greek theology. Its primary doctrinal bases are the first seven ecumenical councils, starting with the first council of Nicaea in 325 and ending with the second council of Nicaea in 787. As opposed to typical Western theological systems, Eastern Orthodoxy focuses on apophatic theology (i.e., the theology of negation), sees God as primarily a mystery, and emphasizes the transformation of believers into a stronger union with God (i.e., deification). Worship and preaching therefore focus on images (i.e., icons) rather than exclusively on doctrine. Eastern Orthodox theology sees the Bible as existing within church tradition and is therefore not understood as the highest authority for doctrine.